Unit 17 - The Mongol Empire
17.1 Mongolia
Numerous nomadic, semi-independent tribes lived in the high steppes of Central Mongolia, located to the northwest of China. They were connected linguistically, culturally, and by trade. Each tribe was led by a chieftain or warlord. They were primarily a herding people whose economy and very survival was dependent upon their large herds of sheep, goats, oxen, camels, and horses.
The tribes moved twice each year from mountain valley floors in the winter to high grassy slopes in the summer. They were very mobile people who because of their frequent movement were not able to carry large amounts of belongings, which limited their economy and prevented the development of skilled craftsmen. They lived in tents made of animal skins (yurts) which could be raised, dismantled, and placed on a pack animal within hours. The camel was their important beast of burden. Because of its unique ability to sense coming sand storms in the desert areas and ability to travel long distances with small amounts of water, it was essential to their survival. The Mongols were also excellent horsemen. Every child could ride a horse and the tribes frequently held national riding championships. The horse gave to the tribes a great advantage for rapid travel and mobility in war. They were expert archers from horseback and could appear and disappear, their enemies claimed, in an instant.
The sedentary cultures who lived around the Mongols did not possess horses so the Mongols, who could move quickly over great distances by horseback, had a great advantage over them.
The greatest disadvantage experienced by the Mongols was the climate of their homeland, which was marked by extreme cold and deep freezes in winter which made their existence in the winter months very precarious. The greatest danger was the starvation of their large herds. In our lifetime, for example, between 1999 and 2002 one-third of all their herds died due to winter starvation.
Important to the tribes was trade with China to the south. China supplied them with grain, enabling them to survive bad winters, and thus they were economically dependent on China. Their constant mobility prevented the development of skilled craftsmen, so the Mongol’s primary trading items were their animals.
In the tenth and eleventh centuries their relations with China were very troubled because for the Mongols to survive, their conduct towards China was either to trade or raid. During the same period many of the tribes adopted new religions from the East and West. Several of the larger tribes embraced Arian Christianity.
17.2 Genghis Khan (d. 1227 A.D.) and the Mongol Empire (c. 1206-1227 A.D.)
Numerous nomadic, semi-independent tribes lived in the high steppes of Central Mongolia, located to the northwest of China. They were connected linguistically, culturally, and by trade. Each tribe was led by a chieftain or warlord. They were primarily a herding people whose economy and very survival was dependent upon their large herds of sheep, goats, oxen, camels, and horses.
The tribes moved twice each year from mountain valley floors in the winter to high grassy slopes in the summer. They were very mobile people who because of their frequent movement were not able to carry large amounts of belongings, which limited their economy and prevented the development of skilled craftsmen. They lived in tents made of animal skins (yurts) which could be raised, dismantled, and placed on a pack animal within hours. The camel was their important beast of burden. Because of its unique ability to sense coming sand storms in the desert areas and ability to travel long distances with small amounts of water, it was essential to their survival. The Mongols were also excellent horsemen. Every child could ride a horse and the tribes frequently held national riding championships. The horse gave to the tribes a great advantage for rapid travel and mobility in war. They were expert archers from horseback and could appear and disappear, their enemies claimed, in an instant.
The sedentary cultures who lived around the Mongols did not possess horses so the Mongols, who could move quickly over great distances by horseback, had a great advantage over them.
The greatest disadvantage experienced by the Mongols was the climate of their homeland, which was marked by extreme cold and deep freezes in winter which made their existence in the winter months very precarious. The greatest danger was the starvation of their large herds. In our lifetime, for example, between 1999 and 2002 one-third of all their herds died due to winter starvation.
Important to the tribes was trade with China to the south. China supplied them with grain, enabling them to survive bad winters, and thus they were economically dependent on China. Their constant mobility prevented the development of skilled craftsmen, so the Mongol’s primary trading items were their animals.
In the tenth and eleventh centuries their relations with China were very troubled because for the Mongols to survive, their conduct towards China was either to trade or raid. During the same period many of the tribes adopted new religions from the East and West. Several of the larger tribes embraced Arian Christianity.
17.2 Genghis Khan (d. 1227 A.D.) and the Mongol Empire (c. 1206-1227 A.D.)
The Big Statue of Chinggis Khaan in Ulaanbaatar
About the year 1206 A.D. a charismatic leader in one of the tribes rose to dominance because of his dynamic leadership ability and skill as a warrior and war strategist. Genghis Khan during the period 1206-1227 A.D. successfully united most of the Mongol tribes into a confederation under his leadership, either by persuasion or forced subjugation. During the years 1180-1220 a dramatic climatic weather change engulfed the Mongols, making survival difficult. As a result, the tribes began to think about expansion and major relocation. This presented a major problem especially for the neighboring Chinese who experienced frequent Mongol raids and whose walled cities increasingly proved vulnerable to the sieges laid by the Mongols.
(Left: Statue of Genghis Khan in Mongolia; Attribute: By Shoyuramen (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AThe_Big_Statue_of_Chinggis_Khaan.JPG)
(Left: Statue of Genghis Khan in Mongolia; Attribute: By Shoyuramen (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AThe_Big_Statue_of_Chinggis_Khaan.JPG)
Mongols battle Chinese
Under Genghis Khan the Mongol tribes began a quest to move not only south into China but also westward towards Mesopotamia and Eastern Europe to conquer new territories in order to acquire more loot. It is estimated that 40 million people were killed by Mongol invaders in China, in the Middle East, in Bulgaria, Georgia, Hungary, Ukraine, and Russia. They pillaged as far westward as Eastern Germany. Some settled in present-day Iran, Iraq, Kazakstan, and Russia where they established khanates (smaller kingdoms led by a Mongol khan). In some rural areas of Russia khanates ruled until the Russian Revolution in 1917.
(Right: Mongols battle Chinese; Attribute: By Sayf al-Vâhidî. Hérât. Afghanistan [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ABataille_entre_mongols_%26_chinois_(1211).jpeg
(Right: Mongols battle Chinese; Attribute: By Sayf al-Vâhidî. Hérât. Afghanistan [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ABataille_entre_mongols_%26_chinois_(1211).jpeg
Significant conquests and movements of Genghis Khan and his generals.
In the initial movement into Central Asia Genghis was able to assemble 200,000 mounted warriors. Each warrior took with him four horses, enabling each man to travel great distances without stopping. It remains a mystery how this rapidly mobile force could find enough food for 800,000 horses! The answer has still not been discovered. But we do know that when a town refused to submit to the Mongols, it was entirely demolished and its surrounding areas turned into grazing areas for Mongol horses for future expeditions when they returned to the area.
After Genghis’ death in 1227 A.D., according to Mongol myth, his body was taken back to Mongolia several thousand miles away, and this during the heat of summer (highly unlikely). There he was supposedly buried in a secret location. To preserve the secrecy of the grave’s location many men were killed. A group of men would transport the body a certain distance where they met a second party. The second party killed the first party so that they could not reveal where they traveled with the body. This continued for a number of times until the body was finally buried. Then upon the final group’s return, they were put to death.
(Map above: Wiki Commons file at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AGenghis_Khan_empire-en.svg)
Modern historians doubt the validity of the myth. First, it would be very unlikely that they could transport a dead body for several thousand miles before its decay would make the trip virtually impossible. Second, the Mongols had no knowledge of embalming. Third, they were not tomb builders. Fourth, they worshipped nature. Most likely, in Mongol fashion, they placed the body of Genghis in the open for animals to devour, which reflected their great appreciation for the whole of nature and the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
However, the immediate question at his death was--who is now going to lead this enormous army? And can the Mongol tribal confederation peacefully sustain itself? Who can keep the necessary process of expansion moving forward? As the map above illustrates, the Mongol armies had penetrated into Russia, present-day Turkey, and as far west as Hungary.
Fortunately, the Mongols were able to produce a peaceful passing of leadership to one of Genghis’ sons. This was, however, the only peaceful transition that would take place. Due to the lack of a formal plan of succession, transition in leadership became a major factor in the empire’s eventual downfall.
It was not that there were no plans at all for succession of leadership. There were certain limited rules for succession. (1) Leadership was to be confined to the descendants of Genghis. And, (2) selection was to be by democratic vote back in the homeland of Mongolia. Both women and men participated in the elections. But the strife between rival candidates led to animosity and warfare and ultimately doomed the future survival of the empire.
The Method of Sharing the Loot
Nevertheless, his sons and grandsons continued where Genghis left off and expanded the empire into Eurasia, Europe, and China.
The Mongols shared wealth communally within each tribe. But this created an enormous problem--it was a never ending cycle. In order to increase the amount of wealth the tribe possessed, they had to live a life of continual warfare, invading, raiding, and looting in order to acquire more booty.
And not only within the Mongol tribes was the loot shared. Another factor compelled them to continually expand the empire. The Mongol practice was to bring people into the empire as fully-vested members if they voluntarily submitted to Mongol rule. The more people who submitted, the more loot it took to share with them. The conquered men, who chose to be conquered rather than to die, supplied more troops for the ongoing expansion necessary to keep the system functioning. Their loyalty was secured through the promise of loot. But food for the expanding armies and their horses placed a huge pressure on the Mongol leadership.
Great amounts of wealth were shipped back to Mongolia where most of the women, children and elderly remained. In order to protect the camel caravans carrying the loot, Genghis and his successors placed troops along the Silk Road at check points located about ten miles apart. This not only protected the shipment of loot going east, but enabled them to check foreign merchants and to collect from them tariffs.
17.3 Unique features and strategies of the Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire was entirely unique in the annals of history. It covered a greater territory than any other empire. It was able to grow and sustain its growth because of a number of unique features.
After Genghis’ death in 1227 A.D., according to Mongol myth, his body was taken back to Mongolia several thousand miles away, and this during the heat of summer (highly unlikely). There he was supposedly buried in a secret location. To preserve the secrecy of the grave’s location many men were killed. A group of men would transport the body a certain distance where they met a second party. The second party killed the first party so that they could not reveal where they traveled with the body. This continued for a number of times until the body was finally buried. Then upon the final group’s return, they were put to death.
(Map above: Wiki Commons file at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AGenghis_Khan_empire-en.svg)
Modern historians doubt the validity of the myth. First, it would be very unlikely that they could transport a dead body for several thousand miles before its decay would make the trip virtually impossible. Second, the Mongols had no knowledge of embalming. Third, they were not tomb builders. Fourth, they worshipped nature. Most likely, in Mongol fashion, they placed the body of Genghis in the open for animals to devour, which reflected their great appreciation for the whole of nature and the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
However, the immediate question at his death was--who is now going to lead this enormous army? And can the Mongol tribal confederation peacefully sustain itself? Who can keep the necessary process of expansion moving forward? As the map above illustrates, the Mongol armies had penetrated into Russia, present-day Turkey, and as far west as Hungary.
Fortunately, the Mongols were able to produce a peaceful passing of leadership to one of Genghis’ sons. This was, however, the only peaceful transition that would take place. Due to the lack of a formal plan of succession, transition in leadership became a major factor in the empire’s eventual downfall.
It was not that there were no plans at all for succession of leadership. There were certain limited rules for succession. (1) Leadership was to be confined to the descendants of Genghis. And, (2) selection was to be by democratic vote back in the homeland of Mongolia. Both women and men participated in the elections. But the strife between rival candidates led to animosity and warfare and ultimately doomed the future survival of the empire.
The Method of Sharing the Loot
Nevertheless, his sons and grandsons continued where Genghis left off and expanded the empire into Eurasia, Europe, and China.
The Mongols shared wealth communally within each tribe. But this created an enormous problem--it was a never ending cycle. In order to increase the amount of wealth the tribe possessed, they had to live a life of continual warfare, invading, raiding, and looting in order to acquire more booty.
And not only within the Mongol tribes was the loot shared. Another factor compelled them to continually expand the empire. The Mongol practice was to bring people into the empire as fully-vested members if they voluntarily submitted to Mongol rule. The more people who submitted, the more loot it took to share with them. The conquered men, who chose to be conquered rather than to die, supplied more troops for the ongoing expansion necessary to keep the system functioning. Their loyalty was secured through the promise of loot. But food for the expanding armies and their horses placed a huge pressure on the Mongol leadership.
Great amounts of wealth were shipped back to Mongolia where most of the women, children and elderly remained. In order to protect the camel caravans carrying the loot, Genghis and his successors placed troops along the Silk Road at check points located about ten miles apart. This not only protected the shipment of loot going east, but enabled them to check foreign merchants and to collect from them tariffs.
17.3 Unique features and strategies of the Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire was entirely unique in the annals of history. It covered a greater territory than any other empire. It was able to grow and sustain its growth because of a number of unique features.
Mongols w. 4 captive Hungarian women
(Left: Mongols in Hungary; from Széchényi National Library, Budapest [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AMongolsInHungary1285.jpg)
1. Religious Freedom: Christians, Muslims, animists, Hindus, Buddhists all fought in the Mongol armies and shared in the loot. Genghis Khan personally refused to embrace anything but the original animism of the Mongols, even though many of his relatives, including his mother and his wife, were Christians. He believed that the overall leader had to remain neutral and could not take sides in the matter of religion. In the Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty in China under Kublai, his wife, major uncle, leading generals, and many of the governmental bureaucracy were Christians. Kublai Khan was a grandson of Genghis Khan. Because Christianity became so linked with the Mongol rulers in China, most of the Chinese ethnic leadership rejected the Christian faith after the Mongols were driven out. It was viewed as a Mongolian-imported religion.
2. Sharing the Loot: Everyone who capitulated to Mongol rule shared in the loot gained from conquered areas. This was the glue that held the empire together over such a large area. It was also the cause of great tension because new areas constantly had to be conquered to supply more loot.This practice was totally contrary to how all other “me first” rulers conducted business in their empires. Genghis Khan practiced a humility among his leaders with regard to how much loot was reserved for the Khan.
3. High Status of Women: Women were regularly consulted in major decisions, took part in the major democratic debates prior to major campaigns being undertaken, ran the empire in the East when the male warriors were at war for months and years in the West, took care of much of the cataloguing of the newly acquired loot, and most younger women trained for warfare. Women had specific property rights. Older widows were honored and married off to younger warriors, bringing experience and skill to the family unit.
The mother of Genghis Khan is reported to have been a woman with extremely high intellect. It was her wisdom that convinced Genghis to adopt his strategy for using, rather than subduing, conquered peoples. She recognized that the Mongols had to accommodate to local institutions and to not impose a nomadic Mongol system on conquered territories. She advocated promoting the skills and abilities of local peasants rather than exerting a harsh rule over them. She also realized that giving them freedom to develop and practice their skills and trades greatly increased not only their productivity but also produced greater tax revenues.
The wife of Kublai Khan was likewise a wise woman who had great influence in his decision making.
4. Honoring and learning from all local cultures: Mongol culture was not forced on newly conquered lands. The customs, culture, religion, and language of the newly conquered area were respected and preserved. The Mongols adopted all superior technology and knowledge of conquered peoples. As they spread westward they increasingly used new war technology learned from people conquered in previous battles.
They also sent craftsmen from one area of the empire to other areas in order to enable all areas to benefit from the skills of others.
1. Religious Freedom: Christians, Muslims, animists, Hindus, Buddhists all fought in the Mongol armies and shared in the loot. Genghis Khan personally refused to embrace anything but the original animism of the Mongols, even though many of his relatives, including his mother and his wife, were Christians. He believed that the overall leader had to remain neutral and could not take sides in the matter of religion. In the Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty in China under Kublai, his wife, major uncle, leading generals, and many of the governmental bureaucracy were Christians. Kublai Khan was a grandson of Genghis Khan. Because Christianity became so linked with the Mongol rulers in China, most of the Chinese ethnic leadership rejected the Christian faith after the Mongols were driven out. It was viewed as a Mongolian-imported religion.
2. Sharing the Loot: Everyone who capitulated to Mongol rule shared in the loot gained from conquered areas. This was the glue that held the empire together over such a large area. It was also the cause of great tension because new areas constantly had to be conquered to supply more loot.This practice was totally contrary to how all other “me first” rulers conducted business in their empires. Genghis Khan practiced a humility among his leaders with regard to how much loot was reserved for the Khan.
3. High Status of Women: Women were regularly consulted in major decisions, took part in the major democratic debates prior to major campaigns being undertaken, ran the empire in the East when the male warriors were at war for months and years in the West, took care of much of the cataloguing of the newly acquired loot, and most younger women trained for warfare. Women had specific property rights. Older widows were honored and married off to younger warriors, bringing experience and skill to the family unit.
The mother of Genghis Khan is reported to have been a woman with extremely high intellect. It was her wisdom that convinced Genghis to adopt his strategy for using, rather than subduing, conquered peoples. She recognized that the Mongols had to accommodate to local institutions and to not impose a nomadic Mongol system on conquered territories. She advocated promoting the skills and abilities of local peasants rather than exerting a harsh rule over them. She also realized that giving them freedom to develop and practice their skills and trades greatly increased not only their productivity but also produced greater tax revenues.
The wife of Kublai Khan was likewise a wise woman who had great influence in his decision making.
4. Honoring and learning from all local cultures: Mongol culture was not forced on newly conquered lands. The customs, culture, religion, and language of the newly conquered area were respected and preserved. The Mongols adopted all superior technology and knowledge of conquered peoples. As they spread westward they increasingly used new war technology learned from people conquered in previous battles.
They also sent craftsmen from one area of the empire to other areas in order to enable all areas to benefit from the skills of others.
5. The Silk Road Maintained Safely: Sharing the loot throughout the empire had to travel along safe routes, free from bandits and robbers. Anyone caught stealing loot was immediately put to death publicly and in a horrific fashion to set an example. All loot captured was carefully catalogued, inventoried, and valued and kept in the central headquarters in Mongolia. Troops were stationed about ten miles apart, both to prevent piracy, as well as to check cargo and collect tariffs from foreign merchants. (Map of Silk Road; Attribute: By Whole_world_-_land_and_oceans_12000.jpg: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center derivative work: Splette (Whole_world_-_land_and_oceans_12000.jpg) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File%3ASilk_route.jpg0
6. Philosophy of Surrender or Fight: “Surrender or fight” were the only two options given to a city or territory under Mongol siege. If a city chose to fight in defense of its people and possessions, every person was killed, all buildings were torn down, and new fields to grow hay for horses were planted to supply food for the Mongol horses the next time they passed through the area. Every area was viewed as “a place where we will probably pass through again in another campaign and we will need food for the horses.” Genghis Khan’s rule of thumb or operating statement was, “Where I go, I conquer . . . . Where I go, borders disappear.”
7. Highly disciplined Mongol military: Hunting, herding, trading, raiding, and warfare were the central features of Mongol life, which tended to produce hardened warriors. Each soldier carried enough milk curd for ten days and water for three days and brought 3-4 horses to enable them to travel up to 100 miles per day. The armies could travel quickly over hundreds of miles and thus bring the element of surprise to their attacks. They introduced the concept of dividing the army into independent units led by generals who were good friends of Genghis who could make independent decisions in a split section. The goal was to converge on a selected target from many sides. They dragged logs to stir up dust as they approached an area and made tumultuous noise, all intended to bring great fright to the targeted cities.
8. Prolific Spreaders of DNA: National Geographic makes the following report: “Genghis Khan's empire at the time of his death extended across Asia, from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea. His military conquests were frequently characterized by the wholesale slaughter of a vanquished people. His descendants extended the empire and maintained power in the region for several hundred years, in civilizations in which harems and concubines were the norm. The males were markedly prolific. Khan's eldest son, Tushi, is reported to have had 40 sons. Documents written during or just after Khan's reign say that after a conquest, looting, pillaging, and rape were the spoils of war for all soldiers, but that the Khan got first pick of the beautiful women. His grandson, Kublai Khan, who established the Yuan Dynasty in China, had 22 legitimate sons and was reported to have added 30 virgins to his harem each year.
“An international group of geneticists studying Y-chromosome data have found that nearly 8 percent of the men living in the region of the former Mongol empire carry y-chromosomes that are nearly identical. That translates to 0.5 percent of the male population in the world, or roughly 16 million descendants living today.” From National Geographic at http://news.nationalgeographic.com/ news/2003/02/0214_030214_genghis.html.
17.4 The Mongols and Islam
The Mongols initially slaughtered millions of Muslims. Islam had become corrupt and weak by the beginning of the 13th century. City after city fell to the Mongols in retaliation for an earlier slaughter of a Mongol caravan. A earlier special Mongol caravan had been sent to an Islamic caliph in Persia to establish trade. The caravan was slaughtered by the caliph, probably as an attempted show of distain for the Mongols. This spelled the death-knell for Muslims.
6. Philosophy of Surrender or Fight: “Surrender or fight” were the only two options given to a city or territory under Mongol siege. If a city chose to fight in defense of its people and possessions, every person was killed, all buildings were torn down, and new fields to grow hay for horses were planted to supply food for the Mongol horses the next time they passed through the area. Every area was viewed as “a place where we will probably pass through again in another campaign and we will need food for the horses.” Genghis Khan’s rule of thumb or operating statement was, “Where I go, I conquer . . . . Where I go, borders disappear.”
7. Highly disciplined Mongol military: Hunting, herding, trading, raiding, and warfare were the central features of Mongol life, which tended to produce hardened warriors. Each soldier carried enough milk curd for ten days and water for three days and brought 3-4 horses to enable them to travel up to 100 miles per day. The armies could travel quickly over hundreds of miles and thus bring the element of surprise to their attacks. They introduced the concept of dividing the army into independent units led by generals who were good friends of Genghis who could make independent decisions in a split section. The goal was to converge on a selected target from many sides. They dragged logs to stir up dust as they approached an area and made tumultuous noise, all intended to bring great fright to the targeted cities.
8. Prolific Spreaders of DNA: National Geographic makes the following report: “Genghis Khan's empire at the time of his death extended across Asia, from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea. His military conquests were frequently characterized by the wholesale slaughter of a vanquished people. His descendants extended the empire and maintained power in the region for several hundred years, in civilizations in which harems and concubines were the norm. The males were markedly prolific. Khan's eldest son, Tushi, is reported to have had 40 sons. Documents written during or just after Khan's reign say that after a conquest, looting, pillaging, and rape were the spoils of war for all soldiers, but that the Khan got first pick of the beautiful women. His grandson, Kublai Khan, who established the Yuan Dynasty in China, had 22 legitimate sons and was reported to have added 30 virgins to his harem each year.
“An international group of geneticists studying Y-chromosome data have found that nearly 8 percent of the men living in the region of the former Mongol empire carry y-chromosomes that are nearly identical. That translates to 0.5 percent of the male population in the world, or roughly 16 million descendants living today.” From National Geographic at http://news.nationalgeographic.com/ news/2003/02/0214_030214_genghis.html.
17.4 The Mongols and Islam
The Mongols initially slaughtered millions of Muslims. Islam had become corrupt and weak by the beginning of the 13th century. City after city fell to the Mongols in retaliation for an earlier slaughter of a Mongol caravan. A earlier special Mongol caravan had been sent to an Islamic caliph in Persia to establish trade. The caravan was slaughtered by the caliph, probably as an attempted show of distain for the Mongols. This spelled the death-knell for Muslims.
In 1258 A.D. the Mongols led by a grandson of Genghis Khan, Hulagu, appeared at the gates of Baghdad. The Muslims rejected an offer to surrender. Within days the city did surrendered and the Mongols spent two weeks looting, raping, and burning the city. The caliph was forced to watch as his subjects were killed. Tradition says that his body was rolled into a carpet and the Mongol horsemen marched across the carpet. It is estimated that at least 200,000 people were killed in the process.
The Mongols then marched into Syria to conquer Damascus. They were accompanied by Christian allies from Armenia (now a vassal state of the Mongols) and Christian troops from the Crusader citadel of Antioch. In 1260 A.D. they entered Damascus and conducted a Christian Mass in the main mosque. The alliance was, perhaps, aided by the fact that the favorite wife of Hulagu was a Nestorian Christian, as were many of the Mongols.
The Mongols then set their sights on Egypt and the Mamluk caliph. But Hulagu was suddenly called back to Mongolia for the election of a new Great Khan. He left behind the Nestorian Christian general, Naiman Noyan with only 20,000 troops. At the Battle of Ain Jalut, in 1260 A.D., they were finally turned back by a larger Muslim Mamluk army. This defeat, just to the north of Jerusalem in the Valley of Jezreel, prevented the Mongols from spreading their destruction further.
The Mongols were the scourge of Islam. They destroyed irrigations systems, tore down city walls, ruined agriculture, and killed thousands of persons. They had a tacit agreement, it seems, with the Crusaders, who looked the other way, and who, in turn, were spared. Baghdad remained a ravished wasteland for several centuries.
After the Empire was split up among the sons and grandsons of Genghis, conversion to Islam on the one hand and Christianity on the other took place. In one portion of the former empire, in Persia, under Ilkhan Ghazan, and in Sandarkan, under Tamerlane, those portions of the empire eventually adopted Islam. It was seen to be best choice in order to better rule their Muslim subjects. In Russia the Mongol leaders adopted Orthodox Christianity.
17.5 The Mongols and Christianity
At the time of the selection of Genghis in 1206 as the new Khan, at least four of the major Mongol tribes had already converted to Nestorian Christianity.
However, as they moved out of Mongolia to build their empire, the Mongols under Genghis Khan cared little about an area’s religion. The whole issue for them was to offer the ultimatum to an area to “fight or submit.” When Christian Armenia surrendered they became a vassal state of the Mongols, but they continued to embrace the Christian faith. Many other Christian areas resisted and were devastated. In Eastern Europe thousands of Caucasian Christians were sold into slavery and traded by the Mongols to “Christian” Venetian merchants, who then sold them as slaves into Africa in exchange for ivory, gold, and silver. In other areas in Eastern Europe, however, where Christians submitted, Christians rose to positions of leadership, especially in economic management and in the military.
It has already been noted that Christians aided the Mongol capture of Damasus, the capitol of Syria, and that at the Mongol defeat at Ain Jalut in Palestine in 1260 A.D., the Mongol troops were led by a Nestorian Christian general.
The Mongols then marched into Syria to conquer Damascus. They were accompanied by Christian allies from Armenia (now a vassal state of the Mongols) and Christian troops from the Crusader citadel of Antioch. In 1260 A.D. they entered Damascus and conducted a Christian Mass in the main mosque. The alliance was, perhaps, aided by the fact that the favorite wife of Hulagu was a Nestorian Christian, as were many of the Mongols.
The Mongols then set their sights on Egypt and the Mamluk caliph. But Hulagu was suddenly called back to Mongolia for the election of a new Great Khan. He left behind the Nestorian Christian general, Naiman Noyan with only 20,000 troops. At the Battle of Ain Jalut, in 1260 A.D., they were finally turned back by a larger Muslim Mamluk army. This defeat, just to the north of Jerusalem in the Valley of Jezreel, prevented the Mongols from spreading their destruction further.
The Mongols were the scourge of Islam. They destroyed irrigations systems, tore down city walls, ruined agriculture, and killed thousands of persons. They had a tacit agreement, it seems, with the Crusaders, who looked the other way, and who, in turn, were spared. Baghdad remained a ravished wasteland for several centuries.
After the Empire was split up among the sons and grandsons of Genghis, conversion to Islam on the one hand and Christianity on the other took place. In one portion of the former empire, in Persia, under Ilkhan Ghazan, and in Sandarkan, under Tamerlane, those portions of the empire eventually adopted Islam. It was seen to be best choice in order to better rule their Muslim subjects. In Russia the Mongol leaders adopted Orthodox Christianity.
17.5 The Mongols and Christianity
At the time of the selection of Genghis in 1206 as the new Khan, at least four of the major Mongol tribes had already converted to Nestorian Christianity.
However, as they moved out of Mongolia to build their empire, the Mongols under Genghis Khan cared little about an area’s religion. The whole issue for them was to offer the ultimatum to an area to “fight or submit.” When Christian Armenia surrendered they became a vassal state of the Mongols, but they continued to embrace the Christian faith. Many other Christian areas resisted and were devastated. In Eastern Europe thousands of Caucasian Christians were sold into slavery and traded by the Mongols to “Christian” Venetian merchants, who then sold them as slaves into Africa in exchange for ivory, gold, and silver. In other areas in Eastern Europe, however, where Christians submitted, Christians rose to positions of leadership, especially in economic management and in the military.
It has already been noted that Christians aided the Mongol capture of Damasus, the capitol of Syria, and that at the Mongol defeat at Ain Jalut in Palestine in 1260 A.D., the Mongol troops were led by a Nestorian Christian general.
Maria of the Mongols
According to British historian Steven Runciman (A History of the Crusades, Vol III, The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades, Cambridge University Press, 1987), Christian women played major roles in the Mongol empire. A son of Genghis Khan, Tolui, and Tloui's four sons, Kublai, Mongke, Hulagu, and Ariq Boke were all married to Nestorian Christian wives. The favorite wife of Hulagu Khan, Doquz Khatun, was a Christian and often accompanied him in battle. Her influence was felt at the conquest of Damascus in 1260 A.D. As noted above, all Muslims in Damascus were killed, but, due to her intercession, the Christians of the city were not harmed.
The son of Hulagu and Doquz, Abaqa Khan, was also married to a Christian, Maria Palaiologina, a daughter of the Byzantine Emperor, Michael VIII. After the death of her husband, Maria, called Despina Khatun by the Mongols, remained with the Mongol community. Later she returned to Constantinople and founded there a monastery. The image, right, of Maria, is from a mosaic in the Chora Church, Istanbul (Constantinople).
(Right: "Maria of the Mongols"; Attributed: Caner Cangül (originally posted to Flickr as [1]) [CC-BY-2.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons at http://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File%3AMaria_of_the_Mongols.jpg)
When Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis, ruled the Yuan Dynasty in China in the late 13th century, his wife, Chabi, his uncle, who was the leading general, and many of the Mongol leaders were Nestorian Christians. Because of the influence of his mother, Sorghaghtani Beki, the widow of Tolui Khan, and a Nestorian Christian, Kublai treated the small Christian community in China with favor and assistance. But it was also through his mother's influence, as well as his wife Chabi, that the same egalitarian attitude was shown to all religions in the empire.
It was during the Yuan Dynasty that Marco Polo lived in China, and who further exposed Kublai to Christianity. (See a further discussion below.)
Additional reading: To learn more about the close relationship between the Mongol leadership and Christianity, read "The Mongols and Christianity," The Monks of Kublai Khan Emperor of China, translated by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, London: The Religious Tract Society, 1928, found at http://www.aina.org/books/mokk/mokk.htm#c16.
17.6 The Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty in China (1271-1368 A.D.)
The Mongols invaded China numerous times in the 13th century. These were usually hit and run attacks or short-term sieges, with the Mongols returning home after they had achieved their mission. However, in 1271 A.D. they arrived again, this time with the intention of staying and establishing a permanent rule. Under Kublai Khan (1215-1294 AD.), the Mongols conquered all of China.
The big question arose: “Now that we have conquered all of China, how in the world are we to manage such a large territory and population?” The Mongols were nomadic with no experience in taking census, levying taxes, developing a system of civil government, or governing normal life in major urban centers. They were too proud to turn to the Chinese for assistance, since they were the conquered people.
The son of Hulagu and Doquz, Abaqa Khan, was also married to a Christian, Maria Palaiologina, a daughter of the Byzantine Emperor, Michael VIII. After the death of her husband, Maria, called Despina Khatun by the Mongols, remained with the Mongol community. Later she returned to Constantinople and founded there a monastery. The image, right, of Maria, is from a mosaic in the Chora Church, Istanbul (Constantinople).
(Right: "Maria of the Mongols"; Attributed: Caner Cangül (originally posted to Flickr as [1]) [CC-BY-2.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons at http://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File%3AMaria_of_the_Mongols.jpg)
When Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghis, ruled the Yuan Dynasty in China in the late 13th century, his wife, Chabi, his uncle, who was the leading general, and many of the Mongol leaders were Nestorian Christians. Because of the influence of his mother, Sorghaghtani Beki, the widow of Tolui Khan, and a Nestorian Christian, Kublai treated the small Christian community in China with favor and assistance. But it was also through his mother's influence, as well as his wife Chabi, that the same egalitarian attitude was shown to all religions in the empire.
It was during the Yuan Dynasty that Marco Polo lived in China, and who further exposed Kublai to Christianity. (See a further discussion below.)
Additional reading: To learn more about the close relationship between the Mongol leadership and Christianity, read "The Mongols and Christianity," The Monks of Kublai Khan Emperor of China, translated by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, London: The Religious Tract Society, 1928, found at http://www.aina.org/books/mokk/mokk.htm#c16.
17.6 The Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty in China (1271-1368 A.D.)
The Mongols invaded China numerous times in the 13th century. These were usually hit and run attacks or short-term sieges, with the Mongols returning home after they had achieved their mission. However, in 1271 A.D. they arrived again, this time with the intention of staying and establishing a permanent rule. Under Kublai Khan (1215-1294 AD.), the Mongols conquered all of China.
The big question arose: “Now that we have conquered all of China, how in the world are we to manage such a large territory and population?” The Mongols were nomadic with no experience in taking census, levying taxes, developing a system of civil government, or governing normal life in major urban centers. They were too proud to turn to the Chinese for assistance, since they were the conquered people.
Kublai Khan
Thus the Mongols recruited Christians and Muslims to help administer China, especially to manage finances. The Muslims, especially, became efficient tax collectors. For that reason the Chinese reviled them (as this the case with all tax collectors!).
On the other hand, the Mongol rulers were delighted with the Muslims! They also realized that the Muslims were far advanced in astronomy. They used them to set up observatories and with their assistance developed a more accurate calendar by the year 1280 A.D. They realized that a major dynasty could not operate by camels sensing the approach of a coming sand storm or by merely watching the flight of birds to predict the coming of winter.
(Left: Kublai Khan; Attribute: Anige (also known as Araniko) of Nepal, an astronomer, engineer, painter, and confidant of Kublai Khan (Artdaily.org) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons)
The Mongols also invited Muslim doctors to China and had them translate 30 volumes of medical studies into Chinese. They needed all the medical assistance they could find! The Mongols were notorious gluttons. They practiced dietary decadence and drank heavily. Fermented mares mild was their favorite beverage and they drank to excess.
They were joined in their gluttony, evidently, by Kublai Khan, who, rather than remaining the dashing warrior on horseback, which was his image initially, he was now so heavy that he could not even mount a horse! Marco Polo reported that by 1280 A.D. the only animal strong enough to carry Kublai was an elephant!
17.7 Contributions of Kublai Khan
Kublai made many wise decisions and made major contributions that benefited later Chinese culture.
There was rampant ethnic prejudice practiced by the Mongols in China. Mongols were forbidden to marry Chinese. The Chinese were forbidden positions in government and leadership roles in the military. Throughout society, the Chinese were treated as second-class citizens of the empire.
17.8 Marco Polo (1254-1334 A.D.)
Marco Polo of Venice, Italy, traveled with his father and uncle to China where he lived for sixteen years during the reign of Kublai Khan. They left Venice in 1271 A.D. and departed China in 1291 A.D. on a return trip by sea, which took them also to the present-day nation of Indonesia. They reached Venice in 1295 A.D.
On the other hand, the Mongol rulers were delighted with the Muslims! They also realized that the Muslims were far advanced in astronomy. They used them to set up observatories and with their assistance developed a more accurate calendar by the year 1280 A.D. They realized that a major dynasty could not operate by camels sensing the approach of a coming sand storm or by merely watching the flight of birds to predict the coming of winter.
(Left: Kublai Khan; Attribute: Anige (also known as Araniko) of Nepal, an astronomer, engineer, painter, and confidant of Kublai Khan (Artdaily.org) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons)
The Mongols also invited Muslim doctors to China and had them translate 30 volumes of medical studies into Chinese. They needed all the medical assistance they could find! The Mongols were notorious gluttons. They practiced dietary decadence and drank heavily. Fermented mares mild was their favorite beverage and they drank to excess.
They were joined in their gluttony, evidently, by Kublai Khan, who, rather than remaining the dashing warrior on horseback, which was his image initially, he was now so heavy that he could not even mount a horse! Marco Polo reported that by 1280 A.D. the only animal strong enough to carry Kublai was an elephant!
17.7 Contributions of Kublai Khan
Kublai made many wise decisions and made major contributions that benefited later Chinese culture.
- He embraced traditional Chinese institutions for government. Historians have noted that there was little difference in styles of government between the Mongols and the Chinese. One major difference, however, was that he abandoned the traditional civil service examinations, which were extremely difficult exams by which any class of student could rise to positions of leadership in the government. Because the exams required excellent Chinese language skills, he abandoned the exams because he wanted a multi-national government served by people other than Chinese.
- He personally led China for thirty years with great success. Beijing was established as the capitol. Trade was fostered with Central Asia and Central Europe. Merchants, and especially traveling merchants who were traditionally viewed by the Chinese as an inferior social class, were esteemed in the Yuan Dynasty.
- Kublai constructed a vast network of roads and greatly expanded the canal systems of China.
- He created a banking system with low interest loans, and developed a paper currency, all of which enabled trade with Europe and Asia to mushroom.
- He developed a strong connection with Iran. The nobility in Iran were especially fond of Chinese porcelain. They invited Chinese porcelain makers to Iran and developed a native porcelain industry, imitating the designs and construction of Chinese porcelain. There remain many examples of the use of the Chinese Dragon, for example, in tiles, tapestries, and ceramic pottery made in other parts of the world. There also was a tremendous Chinese impact on Iranian art.
- In turn, Kublai recognized and made use of Persian (Iranian) advances in medicine and therapy. He imported Persian doctors to build and oversee four Persian style hospitals in Beijing.
- He practiced neutrality with regard to religious practice, and treated equally Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam. (See below 17.10)
There was rampant ethnic prejudice practiced by the Mongols in China. Mongols were forbidden to marry Chinese. The Chinese were forbidden positions in government and leadership roles in the military. Throughout society, the Chinese were treated as second-class citizens of the empire.
17.8 Marco Polo (1254-1334 A.D.)
Marco Polo of Venice, Italy, traveled with his father and uncle to China where he lived for sixteen years during the reign of Kublai Khan. They left Venice in 1271 A.D. and departed China in 1291 A.D. on a return trip by sea, which took them also to the present-day nation of Indonesia. They reached Venice in 1295 A.D.
Marco Polo
When he returned to Italy he was caught up in warfare between Venice and Genoa. His claims about travel and experiences in China caused some to consider him a spy, especially since he was a citizen of rival Venice. As a result , Polo was imprisoned in 1298-1299 A.D. During his imprisonment he dictated his memoirs to a cell mate about his experiences in Persia, China, and Indonesia. They were first published as "Oriente Poliano" ("The Travels of Marco Polo").
The memoirs have been translated into many languages and revised numerous times, but original Italian copies have been lost. While some question the accuracy of some of his reports, there are so many accurate descriptions of life in China, Persia, and Mongolia, and references to actual geographic places, that such reports could not have been purely fictional.
An English translation can be found at http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ The_Travels_of_Marco_Polo.
(Image left: Marco Polo, Public Domain file at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File%3AMarco_Polo_portrait.jpg)
However, Marco Polo probably did exaggerate! For instance, he claimed to have carried weapons for the Mongols in their defeat of the Chinese during a major uprising. However, the actual battle took place several years before he arrived in China. He stated that he had become a governor under Kublai, but no mention is made of this in the records of Chinese history. He also claimed to be Kublai’s personal envoy throughout China, but the question has to be asked--would such a powerful warlord trust his business to a twenty-something young man of Italian birth who knew little of Chinese culture or the Chinese language?!
There is enough accurate information in his reports, however, to support in the view of most historians the fact of his actual trip to China and that he lived there for over sixteen years.
The memoirs have been translated into many languages and revised numerous times, but original Italian copies have been lost. While some question the accuracy of some of his reports, there are so many accurate descriptions of life in China, Persia, and Mongolia, and references to actual geographic places, that such reports could not have been purely fictional.
An English translation can be found at http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/ The_Travels_of_Marco_Polo.
(Image left: Marco Polo, Public Domain file at http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File%3AMarco_Polo_portrait.jpg)
However, Marco Polo probably did exaggerate! For instance, he claimed to have carried weapons for the Mongols in their defeat of the Chinese during a major uprising. However, the actual battle took place several years before he arrived in China. He stated that he had become a governor under Kublai, but no mention is made of this in the records of Chinese history. He also claimed to be Kublai’s personal envoy throughout China, but the question has to be asked--would such a powerful warlord trust his business to a twenty-something young man of Italian birth who knew little of Chinese culture or the Chinese language?!
There is enough accurate information in his reports, however, to support in the view of most historians the fact of his actual trip to China and that he lived there for over sixteen years.
(Image right: Map of Marco Polo's Journey; Attribute: Unknown; downloaded from http://www.myhero.com/ images/ guest/g214989/ hero54829/g214989_u60869_marco_polo_route.jpg)
A brief overview of the life of Marco Polo can be viewed at http://www.biography.com/people/marco-polo-9443861#the-travels-of-marco-polo.
17.9 Kublai’s Attempted Invasions of Japan, Java, and Viet Nam
Kublai attempted two failed and disastrous invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281 A.D.In 1274 A.D. a large fleet was deterred by Korean naval commanders who had a superior knowledge of seamanship and of the Japanese coastal areas than did the Mongols. However, due to a number of large storms, ship wrecks, and miscommunication, the ships returned to China. In 1281 A.D. Kublia planned a second attempt. However, in the meantime, the Japanese, now alerted to the new Chinese threat, built protective walls all along their coastal areas. Kublai, meanwhile, commandeered ships built for lake and river travel but not for ocean travel, to carry his troops across the Sea of Japan. Most of the ships sank during a series of storms. An expedition of 50-70,000 troops was again thwarted by the weather. This had great significance for the Japanese who saw the typhoons as a divine wind (kamikazi) sent by the Sun God. This resulted in a great surge in Japanese national pride. The Mongols, however, were humiliated.
Kublai also attempted a naval attack on the island of Java because of its rich natural resources. Disaster followed the Mongol landing, however. Horses did not function well in the heavy jungles of Java. The hot tropical climate, disease, and fierce defense by the Javanese resulted in defeat. An invasion into Viet Nam was also not successful due to the heavy forests, no resistance to malaria, and intense guerrilla warfare.
17.10 Kublai Khan’s involvement with religion
Kublai followed the lead of his father, Tolui, as did his brothers, Mongke, Hulagu, and Ariq Boke in marrying a Christian woman. Nevertheless, Kublai and his brothers in other parts of the vast Mongol Empire believed that one important way to integrate many nationalities into the empire, especially in trade and in the military, was to tolerate and honor all religions.
Kublai was the first khan to embrace any one religion when he converted to Buddhism, although many in his family and government were Nestorian Christians. During the Yuan Dynasty there was such a new and wide-spread growth of Nestorian Christianity, that when the Yuan Dynasty was overthrown by the Ming Dynasty in 1368 A.D., Christianity was rejected as a foreign religion. Churches and monasteries were destroyed and all traces of Christianity removed.
Kublai sent as the first emissary to Europe a Nestorian monk, Rabban Bar Sauma, whose task it was to attempt to negotiate trade and cultural relationships with Europe. Although the envoy's efforts were hindered for several years by warfare in Mesopotamia, when he finally reached Rome, his visit produced little fruit. He also visited Paris and Vienna. He kept carefully written accounts of his travels from a Chinese perspective. His observations made in Paris noted that he saw many lazy and drunken students! (The Monks of Kublai Khan, Emperor of China, by Sir E. A. Wallace Budge, http://www.aina.org/books/ mokk/mokk.htm).
Some sources mention the growth of Roman Catholic Christianity in 13th century China. This would have been aided by the presence of the Roman Catholic Polo family. In fact, Kublai sent a message to the pope in Rome through the father and uncle of Marco Polo during their prior visit to China. He requested that 100 missionaries be sent to China. It seems that after several years had passed, a new pope in Rome finally responded to the request, but only four Catholic priests and monks responded. They turned back about half way along the Silk Road due to fright from the foreign people they had met and returned to Rome. Unfortunately, the request was never honored and an open door for Christianity in China was missed.
17.11 Mongol interaction with the Byzantine Empire
When the Mongols entered Eurasia they encountered both Islam and Byzantine Christianity. They also had contact with the European Crusaders who were still residing in the Syria, Cyprus, and the Holy Land. Generally the Byzantines and Mongols shared a mutual respect for each other, and they enlisted Crusader support in at least one battle against the Muslims. But the Mongols despised the Muslims as weak, inferior people. Furthermore, the Mongol presence in Persia and Iraq aided the European Crusaders in the early 13th century by weakening the military strength of the Muslim armies.
The first Mongol Khan to establish a khanate in Persia was married to a Nestorian Christian with ties to the Byzantines. Two of the Byzantine emperors (Michaell VIII in 1263 A.D. and Andronicus II c. 1320 A.D.) gave their daughters to Mongol khans in an attempt to seal an alliance. Byzantine Emperor Constantine V also was married to a Khazar (Mongol) princess to achieve the same ends.
However, the Byzantines also feared the growth and power of the Islam that surrounded it on every side. Fearing that a strong tie with the Mongols would eventually prove harmful to Byzantine-Islamic relations, the Byzantines cooled their outreach to the Mongols.
A brief overview of the life of Marco Polo can be viewed at http://www.biography.com/people/marco-polo-9443861#the-travels-of-marco-polo.
17.9 Kublai’s Attempted Invasions of Japan, Java, and Viet Nam
Kublai attempted two failed and disastrous invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281 A.D.In 1274 A.D. a large fleet was deterred by Korean naval commanders who had a superior knowledge of seamanship and of the Japanese coastal areas than did the Mongols. However, due to a number of large storms, ship wrecks, and miscommunication, the ships returned to China. In 1281 A.D. Kublia planned a second attempt. However, in the meantime, the Japanese, now alerted to the new Chinese threat, built protective walls all along their coastal areas. Kublai, meanwhile, commandeered ships built for lake and river travel but not for ocean travel, to carry his troops across the Sea of Japan. Most of the ships sank during a series of storms. An expedition of 50-70,000 troops was again thwarted by the weather. This had great significance for the Japanese who saw the typhoons as a divine wind (kamikazi) sent by the Sun God. This resulted in a great surge in Japanese national pride. The Mongols, however, were humiliated.
Kublai also attempted a naval attack on the island of Java because of its rich natural resources. Disaster followed the Mongol landing, however. Horses did not function well in the heavy jungles of Java. The hot tropical climate, disease, and fierce defense by the Javanese resulted in defeat. An invasion into Viet Nam was also not successful due to the heavy forests, no resistance to malaria, and intense guerrilla warfare.
17.10 Kublai Khan’s involvement with religion
Kublai followed the lead of his father, Tolui, as did his brothers, Mongke, Hulagu, and Ariq Boke in marrying a Christian woman. Nevertheless, Kublai and his brothers in other parts of the vast Mongol Empire believed that one important way to integrate many nationalities into the empire, especially in trade and in the military, was to tolerate and honor all religions.
Kublai was the first khan to embrace any one religion when he converted to Buddhism, although many in his family and government were Nestorian Christians. During the Yuan Dynasty there was such a new and wide-spread growth of Nestorian Christianity, that when the Yuan Dynasty was overthrown by the Ming Dynasty in 1368 A.D., Christianity was rejected as a foreign religion. Churches and monasteries were destroyed and all traces of Christianity removed.
Kublai sent as the first emissary to Europe a Nestorian monk, Rabban Bar Sauma, whose task it was to attempt to negotiate trade and cultural relationships with Europe. Although the envoy's efforts were hindered for several years by warfare in Mesopotamia, when he finally reached Rome, his visit produced little fruit. He also visited Paris and Vienna. He kept carefully written accounts of his travels from a Chinese perspective. His observations made in Paris noted that he saw many lazy and drunken students! (The Monks of Kublai Khan, Emperor of China, by Sir E. A. Wallace Budge, http://www.aina.org/books/ mokk/mokk.htm).
Some sources mention the growth of Roman Catholic Christianity in 13th century China. This would have been aided by the presence of the Roman Catholic Polo family. In fact, Kublai sent a message to the pope in Rome through the father and uncle of Marco Polo during their prior visit to China. He requested that 100 missionaries be sent to China. It seems that after several years had passed, a new pope in Rome finally responded to the request, but only four Catholic priests and monks responded. They turned back about half way along the Silk Road due to fright from the foreign people they had met and returned to Rome. Unfortunately, the request was never honored and an open door for Christianity in China was missed.
17.11 Mongol interaction with the Byzantine Empire
When the Mongols entered Eurasia they encountered both Islam and Byzantine Christianity. They also had contact with the European Crusaders who were still residing in the Syria, Cyprus, and the Holy Land. Generally the Byzantines and Mongols shared a mutual respect for each other, and they enlisted Crusader support in at least one battle against the Muslims. But the Mongols despised the Muslims as weak, inferior people. Furthermore, the Mongol presence in Persia and Iraq aided the European Crusaders in the early 13th century by weakening the military strength of the Muslim armies.
The first Mongol Khan to establish a khanate in Persia was married to a Nestorian Christian with ties to the Byzantines. Two of the Byzantine emperors (Michaell VIII in 1263 A.D. and Andronicus II c. 1320 A.D.) gave their daughters to Mongol khans in an attempt to seal an alliance. Byzantine Emperor Constantine V also was married to a Khazar (Mongol) princess to achieve the same ends.
However, the Byzantines also feared the growth and power of the Islam that surrounded it on every side. Fearing that a strong tie with the Mongols would eventually prove harmful to Byzantine-Islamic relations, the Byzantines cooled their outreach to the Mongols.
Videos to explore:
- Barbarians: The Mongols at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w0ZfstdXsAU
- The Mongol Empire: Kublai Khan at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e0A9Db1V5tY
- Marco Polo: Journey to the East at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XwdrxlR8BBc.
- Christianity in the Mongol Empire at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=98waPYAqEWQ
17.12 Tamerlane (1336-1405)
No study of the Mongols is complete without reference to Tamerlane. Tamerlane established a large and powerful khanate centered in Kazakstan. He ultimately developed a larger empire than did Genghis Khan. He was born near Samarkand in 1336 A.D. in present-day Uzbekistan. That area, as well as neighboring Afghanistan, had been conquered earlier by Genghis Khan. Tamerlane was a descendant of those earlier Mongol invaders.
No study of the Mongols is complete without reference to Tamerlane. Tamerlane established a large and powerful khanate centered in Kazakstan. He ultimately developed a larger empire than did Genghis Khan. He was born near Samarkand in 1336 A.D. in present-day Uzbekistan. That area, as well as neighboring Afghanistan, had been conquered earlier by Genghis Khan. Tamerlane was a descendant of those earlier Mongol invaders.
Timur, or Tamerlane
After the death of Genghis Khan death in 1227 A.D., a number of his sons and their cousins settled in the area of Samarkand and frequently fought over leadership. Through intermarriage their descendants had become a mixture of Mongol, Persian, and Turk, and many had converted to Islam.
From this group emerged a powerful leader, known in Turkish, as Timur i Lenge, or “Timur the Lame,” better known in the West as "Tamerlane". He was orphaned as a young boy. He was attacked and shot in the leg by an older man who was attempting to capture him for slavery. Tamerlane escaped but walked with a severe limp the rest of his life.
Tamerlane envisioned himself as a second Genghis Khan and set out to restore the Khan’s former empire and glory. By 1394 A.D. he had extended his conquests throughout Persia, Mesopotamia, the territory between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea into Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, and in 1396 A.D. exploded into Russia where he invaded and occupied Moscow for one year.
The image of Timur, or Tamerlane, above, is a reconstruction of his facial features by the Russian anthropologist, Mikhail Gerasimov, who, with Soviet permission in 1941, had reopened the tomb of Timur in Samarkand. Gerasimov was noted for his ability to reconstruct facial features from human skulls, including that of Timur. (Above: Timur from reconstruction; Attributed: shakko (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons at http://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File%3ATimur_reconstruction03.jpg).
The map below shows the extent of the Timurid Dynasty, or the Khanate of Timur, 1365-1405 A.D. It encompasses present-day eastern Turkey, Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran, Northern Syria, Georgia, Kazakstan, Armenia, Pakistan, and extends to the present-day capitol of India, Dehli. (Timurid Dynasty; Attribute: Stuntelaar (Own work) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons at http://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File%3ATimur_Empire.jpg)
From this group emerged a powerful leader, known in Turkish, as Timur i Lenge, or “Timur the Lame,” better known in the West as "Tamerlane". He was orphaned as a young boy. He was attacked and shot in the leg by an older man who was attempting to capture him for slavery. Tamerlane escaped but walked with a severe limp the rest of his life.
Tamerlane envisioned himself as a second Genghis Khan and set out to restore the Khan’s former empire and glory. By 1394 A.D. he had extended his conquests throughout Persia, Mesopotamia, the territory between the Black Sea and Caspian Sea into Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, and in 1396 A.D. exploded into Russia where he invaded and occupied Moscow for one year.
The image of Timur, or Tamerlane, above, is a reconstruction of his facial features by the Russian anthropologist, Mikhail Gerasimov, who, with Soviet permission in 1941, had reopened the tomb of Timur in Samarkand. Gerasimov was noted for his ability to reconstruct facial features from human skulls, including that of Timur. (Above: Timur from reconstruction; Attributed: shakko (Own work) [CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons at http://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File%3ATimur_reconstruction03.jpg).
The map below shows the extent of the Timurid Dynasty, or the Khanate of Timur, 1365-1405 A.D. It encompasses present-day eastern Turkey, Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran, Northern Syria, Georgia, Kazakstan, Armenia, Pakistan, and extends to the present-day capitol of India, Dehli. (Timurid Dynasty; Attribute: Stuntelaar (Own work) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons at http://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File%3ATimur_Empire.jpg)
Timurid Dynasty 1365-1405
His rule was brutal. He is especially remembered for his sadistic building methods -- he used the skulls of his victims as building blocks in the masonry walls of towers he constructed to remind people of his power!
In 1398 A.D. he invaded India and went as far as Delhi, which he sacked and destroyed. He sent the loot obtained back to Samarkand on 120 elephants.
There was a problem, however. There was already a Muslim Sultan ruling in Dehli! One Muslim is not to attack another. Tamerlane’s excuse for attacking and invading the Dehli Sultanate was its tolerance shown towards the majority Hindus.
Returning home to Samarkand, Tamerlane set his energies on making the city the jewel of the Islamic world, a great center of Islamic art and architecture. Skilled craftsmen from India and other captured areas were set to work constructing the city and its central mosque. Timur, or Tamerlane, built a grand tomb for his favorite grandson who died in battle in 1409 A.D. Timur was also interred here together with two of his sons and second a grandson.
Not content with his already achieved successes, Timur, or Tamerlane, moved south into Syria in 1401 A.D. where he defeated the Mamluk armies of Egypt. On his way home he passed through Baghdad in Iraq where he killed 20,000 people and devastated the city. By the next year he also invaded Anatolia (present-day Turkey) and stopped only when he reached the Aegean Sea opposite Greece.
In 1404 A.D. he assembled a large army and set off to invade China, aspiring to link to the former territories of the Yuan Dynasty. Only his death prior to reaching China brought the expedition to a halt.
17.13 Descendants of Tamerlane in Russia
Tamerlane’s descendants continued to rule over his empire until it declined and was overtaken by a new Islamic dynasty in 1515 A.D.
Their presence in Russia established the pattern of rule by absolutism, which was later to be imitated by the czars. The cruel subjugation of the general populace in Russia produced the country's notorious serfdom which continued until the fall of Communism in 1989. Tamerlane’s rule in Russia cut it off from the rest of Europe and from the innovations and new ideas of the Renaissance. Russians refer to this era as the “Tartar Yoke."
Samarkand today is considered to be a melting pot and a crossroads of many cultures. It is located in the path of the major ancient trade routes that extended between Europe and Eurasia.
In 1868 the Russians returned the favor and invaded and conquered Samarkand, making it a provincial capitol in 1887. They brought the Caspian railroad to the city in order to revive its economy.
Samarkand is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Read more:http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ac86#ixzz1zCMbZBKC
Visit Samarkand at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lCiUGb9f7hI.
Reading Questions
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4-5
What resulted from the Mongols’ contacts with Islam and Christianity?
17.6
17.7
17.8
Who was Marco Polo, and why do you suppose history has made such a big deal out of this man?
17.11
Yikes! The Byzantine Christians not only had to deal with their neighbors, Islam, but in the 13th and 14th centuries the Mongols also!! How did the intense hatred between Islam and the Mongols (Islamic armies greatly feared the Mongol armies, who, when defeating Islamic armies--which they usually did--left no survivors and took no captives!) lead to a change in attitude ultimately on the part of the Byzantines towards Islam?
17.12
Historians cite Tamerlane as the second most important descendant of Genghis Khan, second only to Kublai Khan. Why do you suppose this is the case? What evidences do you find that would qualify Tamerlane to be given this high position among the many Mongol rulers who came after Genghis Khan?
17:1-12 Summary Questions
When this unit is completed you should be able to do the following:
Vocabulary Items
In 1398 A.D. he invaded India and went as far as Delhi, which he sacked and destroyed. He sent the loot obtained back to Samarkand on 120 elephants.
There was a problem, however. There was already a Muslim Sultan ruling in Dehli! One Muslim is not to attack another. Tamerlane’s excuse for attacking and invading the Dehli Sultanate was its tolerance shown towards the majority Hindus.
Returning home to Samarkand, Tamerlane set his energies on making the city the jewel of the Islamic world, a great center of Islamic art and architecture. Skilled craftsmen from India and other captured areas were set to work constructing the city and its central mosque. Timur, or Tamerlane, built a grand tomb for his favorite grandson who died in battle in 1409 A.D. Timur was also interred here together with two of his sons and second a grandson.
Not content with his already achieved successes, Timur, or Tamerlane, moved south into Syria in 1401 A.D. where he defeated the Mamluk armies of Egypt. On his way home he passed through Baghdad in Iraq where he killed 20,000 people and devastated the city. By the next year he also invaded Anatolia (present-day Turkey) and stopped only when he reached the Aegean Sea opposite Greece.
In 1404 A.D. he assembled a large army and set off to invade China, aspiring to link to the former territories of the Yuan Dynasty. Only his death prior to reaching China brought the expedition to a halt.
17.13 Descendants of Tamerlane in Russia
Tamerlane’s descendants continued to rule over his empire until it declined and was overtaken by a new Islamic dynasty in 1515 A.D.
Their presence in Russia established the pattern of rule by absolutism, which was later to be imitated by the czars. The cruel subjugation of the general populace in Russia produced the country's notorious serfdom which continued until the fall of Communism in 1989. Tamerlane’s rule in Russia cut it off from the rest of Europe and from the innovations and new ideas of the Renaissance. Russians refer to this era as the “Tartar Yoke."
Samarkand today is considered to be a melting pot and a crossroads of many cultures. It is located in the path of the major ancient trade routes that extended between Europe and Eurasia.
In 1868 the Russians returned the favor and invaded and conquered Samarkand, making it a provincial capitol in 1887. They brought the Caspian railroad to the city in order to revive its economy.
Samarkand is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Read more:http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ac86#ixzz1zCMbZBKC
Visit Samarkand at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lCiUGb9f7hI.
Reading Questions
17.1
- A people’s environment, created by the climate and geography, greatly shape their culture. Give specific examples of how the Mongol culture was shaped by their environment.
- Why were the camel and the horse so important to their culture? Give a response for each animal specifically.
- Describe the relations between the Mongols and China.
17.2
- What caused the sudden decision by the Mongols under Genghis Khan to move southward into China and westward into the Middle East and Europe?
- How did the Mongols keep the various tribes aligned under Genghis united and devoted to the cause of expansion through conquering new areas?
- What was unique about how the Mongols treated conquered towns and cities who submitted to Mongol rule?
- How did this, on the one hand, aid the Mongols in their expansion, and other the other hand, how did it create major problems for the Mongols?
- Give an indication of how wide-spread and fearsome the expansion of the Mongols was into China, the Middle East, and Europe.
- What was a weakness in the Mongol power structure that eventually led to the Empire’s progressing and increasing decline after the death of Genghis Khan?
- Do an internet search to find out more about the Silk Road. What was the Silk Road?
- Find a map and share with me the web site of the map you have located. What do you learn from this map?
- Why did the Mongols place guards along the Silk Road at intervals?
17.3
- Memorize the eight (8) features of the Mongol Empire. Be able to list them in a quiz. These are important because they greatly shaped the areas that were conquered by the Mongols, and set the Mongol conquerors apart from all other conquerors known up to that time in history.
- Which of the 8 features (choose several) that you think most specifically set the Mongols apart from other empires that expanded through conquest? (Think of Babyonia, or Persia, or Alexander, or the Romans, for example.)
- Go read the article at http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/02/0214_030214_genghis.html. In what other way did the Mongols leave their imprint on the Middle East and Europe?
17.4-5
What resulted from the Mongols’ contacts with Islam and Christianity?
17.6
- Why do suppose historians identify Kublai Khan as one of the two most important descendants of Genghis Khan?
- What were the results of Kublai Khan and his dynasty in China’s exposure to Islam and Christianity? See also 15.10 in developing your response to this question.
17.7
- If you were a Chinese person living under the Mongols in the 14th century, what do you think your attitude would be towards them?
- If many of the Mongols embraced Christianity during this time, which they did, what do you think would be your attitude towards Christianity after your people were able to drive the Mongols out of China? Think first of yourself as a Chinese Christian, and then as a Chinese Buddhist.
17.8
Who was Marco Polo, and why do you suppose history has made such a big deal out of this man?
17.11
Yikes! The Byzantine Christians not only had to deal with their neighbors, Islam, but in the 13th and 14th centuries the Mongols also!! How did the intense hatred between Islam and the Mongols (Islamic armies greatly feared the Mongol armies, who, when defeating Islamic armies--which they usually did--left no survivors and took no captives!) lead to a change in attitude ultimately on the part of the Byzantines towards Islam?
17.12
Historians cite Tamerlane as the second most important descendant of Genghis Khan, second only to Kublai Khan. Why do you suppose this is the case? What evidences do you find that would qualify Tamerlane to be given this high position among the many Mongol rulers who came after Genghis Khan?
17:1-12 Summary Questions
- You probably have learned very little about Genghis, Kublai, and Tamerlane prior to reading this chapter. What is your overall impression of this empire?
- Why was the journey to and living in China for many years by Marco Polo a precursor (look up that word!) to the birth of the Renaissance in Italy in the 14th century?
- What have you learned about the history of the spread of Christianity into Asia by reading this unit?
When this unit is completed you should be able to do the following:
- List and discuss the major features of the Mongol Empire.
- Discuss the theme, “The Mongol Empire was in a number of ways ahead of its time, when compared with other empires in Asia and Europe.”
- Explain the “Fight or Submit” rule, and how the Mongols treated their conquered subjects, making surrender all the more appealing.
- Discuss at least five of the eight unique features of the empire under Genghis Khan.
- Discuss the relationship of the Mongols with Islam and with Christianity.
- Discuss what the features were of the Mongol Empire, or Yuan Dynasty, in the 13th century, and why the Christian Church almost vanished from China after the Yuan Dynasty was overthrown by the Ming Dynasty.
- Discuss why it is important to realize that empires like those of Genghis Khan and Tamerlane existed at the same time as the Holy Roman Empire, the Avignon Empire, and those in Ghana and Mali, and what they contributed to the development of the world’s civilizations today.
- Be able to find your way around the several maps listed below.
Vocabulary Items
- Yuan Dynasty
- Genghis Khan
- white slavery
- khan
- khanate
- Kublai Khan
- Mongolia
- steppes
- Silk Road
- Marco Polo
- Pax Mongolica
- Timur (Tamerlane)
- yurt
- Samarkand