Unit 28-Europe after 1815

Satirical cartoon: "The Monarchies slice up Napoleon's Cake." Wikimedia Commons. France's Talleyrand under table scooping up crumbs @ https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vignetta_Satirica_Congresso_di_Vienna.jpg#file

Unit 28 - Europe after Napoleon

28.1 “Repairing” Europe after Napoleon's Banishment

Treaty of Paris I (1814)
The spirit of the victors after the Battle of the Nations in 1814 was, "Let's go easy on France and help to restore the monarchy; they don't need any more hardship from us." The major blame was placed on Napoleon for the confusion brought on the rest of Europe by the French Empire. Napoleon was forced into exile on the island of Elba off the west coast of Italy.

The younger brother of Louis XVI, Louis XVIII, was crowned monarch and given a very different throne than occupied by his Bourbon predecessors. The French monarchy was now a constitutional monarchy. New boundaries were set for the king's powers. Absolutism was abolished.

But then, "Oops!!" In February 1815 Napoleon escaped from the island of Elba, resurrected the French Imperial Army, unseated Louis XVIII who had fled to the Netherlands, and reestablished himself as emperor--for one hundred days.

Treaty of Paris II (1815)
After Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo in June 1815 by the Quadruple Alliance, it was now time to “fix the French problem” once and for all!

The attitude of the victors this time was, "Okay, you guys, now we'll get tougher on you and make certain you never do this again!"

Four separate but identical treaties were signed by France with Great Britain, Austro-Hungary, Prussia, and Russia. Important elements of the treaties were:

France would lose all territorial possessions gained in Europe under Napoleon.
France was required to pay 700 million francs as repayment for war-time destruction. A total of 100 million francs were to be paid to Austria, Prussian, Great Britain, and Russia. The remaining 100 million was to be paid to the Netherlands, Sardinia, and the numerous German states who sided with Prussia.
France had to maintain at its own expense an occupation army of 150,000 comprised of troops from the victorious nations. The coalition army was to oversee eastern France from the English Channel to Switzerland for a period of five years--to eliminate any further expansionist attempts by France to move into Germany, Austria, and Italy.
The practice of human slavery was opposed by the European powers, who determined to unitedly exterminate its practice.

Congress of Vienna, 1815
Following the Treaty of Paris the victorious Quadruple Alliance met at Vienna in 1815 to further determine their course of action. The major goals were: (1) to maintain the status quo in monarchial Europe so that the “poisons” of the French Revolution would not spread to the other European monarchies (namely the Quadruple Alliance nations), (2) to restore the national boundaries as they existed prior to Napoleon’s bold charge into every area of Europe, and (3) to restore the monarchy in France.

The French Empire was now in ruins. There was no leadership in sight to continue the momentum of the revolution, and the victors, determined to restore the monarchy in France, twice gave the throne to Louis XVIII, both after Napoleon’s defeat in 1814, and now again in 1815. The restored monarchy ruled France for the next 33 years until the second French revolution occurred in 1848.

The delegates were determined (1) to “keep France in line” once a for all, (2) to resist and eliminate the appetite for revolution in Europe, (3) to create a balance of power through a redistribution of territory lost to Napoleon, and (4) agreed to unitedly intervene if revolution or any other threat to a monarchy occurred in Europe. They also agreed to meet periodically to "see how things are going."

Results of the Congress of Vienna

Russia was given most of Poland.
Prussia was given 40% of German Saxony, its long time competitor, because of Saxony’s alliances with Napoleon.
The remainder of Saxony was allowed to continue as the kingdom of Saxony.
Prussia was given the western areas of Poland.
The German Confederation of 38 states was formed from the 300+ small German states who had previously been under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire. They were to be governed by a dual presidency comprised of the King of Prussia and the Emperor of Austria--which proved to be disastrous because of the growing enmity between Prussia and Austria for control of the German states.
Slave trade by any European governments was condemned.
Freedom of navigation was decreed on most European rivers to promote trade.
The independency of the Netherlands from Spain was formally recognized.
Most French overseas colonial territories were given to Quadruple Alliance member nations and Great Britain was given the largest share.

But not all was settled at Vienna. The flames of revolution continued to smolder under the surface and quickly spread from nation to nation in Europe until simmering volcano erupted in 1848.

Map of Europe 1812. Wikimedia Commons

Map of Europe 1815. Wikimedia Commons

Prince Klemens von Metternich. c. 1834. Public Domain

Metternich
Two men cast their shadow over Europe during the first half of the 19th century, Napoleon and and Prince Klemens von Metternich, Prime Minister of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

Metternich was the driving force at Vienna. He had been the main orchestrator of the Quadruple Alliance in 1814. His was an effort to protect the status quo and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Napoleon had dismantled the old Holy Roman Empire when he invaded Vienna. But after Napoleon’s defeat in 1815, the Austro-Hungarian Empire resumed its rule over the many diverse people groups in the Empire. Metternich was totally committed to the idea that only a strong absolute monarchy could hold the many cultures, languages, and ethnic groups together within the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

The "Congress of Vienna" is a misnomer. It was, rather, Metternich moving from delegation to delegation and garnering support for the items listed above during February through May 1815. Delegates formed themselves into special interest groups, some based upon old national battle scars, suspicions and prejudices, and others with common agendas.

Metternich's passion for the absolute monarchial system of government became the dominant and prevailing political philosophy and practice in Europe from 1815 to 1848--except in France, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Saxony and Scandinavian countries where constitutional monarchies existed.

When Europe's "Year of Revolution" (1848) broke out, Metternich went into self-imposed exile, fearing for his life. He eventually returned to Vienna in 1851, but without an official government position.

Critics maintain that Metternich's policies thwarted Europe's move towards progressive, republican, and liberal forms of government. Some even attribute the causes of World War I (1914-1918) to Metternich.

Czar Alexander II of Russia [Public Domain]

28.2 Europe's Absolute Monarchies Attempt to Contain the Revolutionary Ideas of the Enlightenment

Whispered throughout the halls of Europe following the Congress of Vienna were several questions:

How should the European monarchies handle the spread of the Enlightenment idea of "inalienable rights" for which the American colonials and the French revolutionaries had been willing to die?
How could monarchies co-exist with the social contract form of government? After all, the European monarchs believed in the divine right of kings and queens, not by a vote of their subjects.
With the birth of the industrial revolution that began in the late 18th century in England--a revolution that most knew would inevitably spread to the rest of Europe--who would resolve the major economic questions that would arise? Would the mercantilism of absolute monarchies be effective or should they embrace capitalism? Would free enterprise (capitalism), if allowed to develop, ultimately undo the control of the monarchies?

Four monarchies--Prussia, Austria, Russia, and Spain--imposed a tighter governmental control over their people after 1815 in order to suppress an eruption of the radicals. The monarchies could not fathom how a nation could ever survive without a strong, absolute monarchy. After all, they were the rightful rulers ordained by God through the divine rights of kings! Look at what resulted in France! And the American political and economic experiment was too young to predict its ultimate ends.

England, on the other hand, had earlier given greater rights to its citizens and governed through a monarchy greatly controlled by Parliament. The English Bill of Rights had been adopted in 1689 that greatly curtailed the power of the monarchy. Constitutional monarchies were formed in the Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark.

However, in all European capitols an underground current of agitation was building for a revolution that would grant to the people greater freedoms.

In Prussia King Friedrich Wilhelm III granted greater powers to the Junkers (the Prussian nobility) by giving them management of the army and exclusive rights as officers in the army. But in exchange, the Junkers were required to swear total allegiance to the king.

In Austria the emperor exercised increased power over the serfs in that vast empire to avoid sectional uprisings. On the other hand he agreed to give greater authority to the Hungarians by allowing the formation of a Hungarian parliament, resulting in the formation of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The emperor controlled two separate parliaments: Austria and Hungary.

In Russia three major uprisings faced Alexander II (Czar 1855-1881) even though he is considered the greatest reformer Russian history, second only to Peter the Great. What happened in Russia was of great concern to the other monarchies. Alexander was a grandson of King Frederick William III of Prussia. Other members of a large extended family either sat on thrones of, were married to monarchs, or were members of the nobility throughout Europe.

Serfs constituted 95% of the Russian population. The control exerted by the tsars over the serfs was absolute. Control over the serfs was granted to the nobility in exchange for their unquestioned loyalty to the crown. However, Alexander II (Czar 1855-1881) championed the Emancipation Reform of 1861 abolishing serfdom. Serfs working on private estates were set free to own property, and, to marry without approval from their employers. However, the debts they assumed when purchasing land were so heavy and the actual land offered to them for purchase was so poor, that they had to neglect their own crops in order to pay their debts. This led to angry local uprisings.

Alexander instituted other social reforms. He abolished corporal punishment (whippings, amputation of fingers, breaking bones), established a judicial system whereby cases were heard by local judges, instituted compulsory military service for men (to bridge the gap between the military and the public), and promoted a university system.

In 1876 industrial workers Saint Petersburg organized large protests in the city. Their goals were the overthrow of the monarchy, a democratic government, abolition of the hated army, and workers' ownership of production.

At the same time university students rebelled against the strict control by the czar over the curricula, designed to prevent liberalism and modernity from spreading. They attempted several times to assassinate the Czar, including blowing up the Czar's dining room, which missed the Czar who was late to dinner! They were finally successful in 1881 when a student threw a bomb into Czar's carriage.

All of these uprisings failed to overthrow the monarchy or to ease the conditions of the peasants, industrial workers, or students.Both of Alexander's successors. Alexander III and Nicholas II became entrenched in their absolute rule.

Hence, the philosophy of Metternich prevailed and the monarchial control was heavy.

Friedrich Wilhelm IV (1795 –1861), King of Prussia [Public Domain]

28.3 The Year of Revolutions 1848

The growing discontent throughout Europe finally exploded in 1848.

In Germany progressives in the city of Frankfurt, Germany took control of the city in 1848, and thinking that they had a possible ally in King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia, they offered him the crown of a hoped-for new constitutional monarchy reigning over all German states. Displaying a contempt for inferior "commoners,” which was characteristic among Europe’s elitist monarchies ("God chooses monarchs, not the common people."), Wilhelm rejected the offer “because it came from the hands of commoners!” With the help of the Junkers he maintained firm control over Prussia, expanded its territory, and named Otto von Bismark as his Prime Minister. Prussia soon grew to be the most powerful military force in Europe and became known as “the Sparta of Europe.”

Bismark’s brilliant military and political leadership became the most powerful influence in Europe until his dismissal in 1890. He dominated Europe after 1848 as did Metternich prior to 1848,

In Vienna outbreaks of revolution in the city did not have the general support of the farmers in the rest of Austria. Without their support the revolutionary efforts failed. The emperor, quick to prevent revolution in Hungary, granted them the right to establish their own parliament, but under the umbrella of his throne.

Similar uprisings in Russia were quickly suppressed by the army of Tsar Nicholas I. As with Metternich earlier, Nicholas’ intention was to maintain the status quo in Europe, and especially in Russia. When a similar uprising took place in Russian-occupied Poland, the Russian army quickly extinguished it. Nicholas also sent Russian troops into northern Hungary and to Vienna to assist the Austrian emperor against revolutionaries. He could not allow a revolution to be successful along his southern borders.

While he personally planned to ease the burden on the serfs in Russia, Nicholas never did so in his lifetime. His son, Alexander II, did liberate the serfs and for that action became known as Alexander the Liberator. But that was to be short-lived. When further uprisings took place, Alexander III, quickly reined in the serfs and reinforced absolutism in Russia. His son, Nicholas II, continued that absolutism through the later Revolution of 1905 until the Revolution of 1917. Father (Alexander III) and son (Nicholas II) responded harshly to calls for government reforms.

Little unrest developed in England in 1848 due to the fact that its monarchy, ever since the Glorious Revolution of 1688, had ruled in a virtual co-leadership with parliament. It had also agreed to the English Bill of Rights of 1689, and shared power, not only with the House of Lords in the parliament, but also with the elected House of Commons.

In 1848 the Second French Revolution deposed the king, disbanded the constitutional monarchy, and by a national election selected Napoleon III as its new president.

28.4 Major questions, primarily economic, arising from impending industrialization

With the birth of the industrial revolution that began in the late 18th century in England, most of Europe's leaders knew industrialization would inevitably spread to the rest of Europe,

Who would decide the major economic questions that would arise? Would the mercantilism of absolutism be effective? Who would settle questions, such as:

What price should be set for a particular product and who would decide?
How much in wages should be paid the workers?
What amount should be kept by the industrialists to a) cover replacement, repairs, etc., b) enable reinvestment, and c) provide profit?
Would production be determined by government-controlled quotas or by the free enterprise principle of supply and demand?
Was there sufficient urban infrastructure in place to handle the inevitable influx of people to the cities?
What changes would the emerging industrialists, management, investors, and bankers have on a society traditionally centered around monarchies and nobility?
Should or would central government play a part in answering these question?
How should Europe's leaders peacefully determine how the continent of Africa, of India, and East Asia be divided among the European powers in order to obtain the natural resources from those areas necessary for industrialization, and how should France's foreign colonies be awarded to Great Britain and members of the Holy Alliance?

28.5 Six Isms responded to the emerging political and economic questions

Six Isms, or philosophical ideas, attempted to answer these questions and to address the rights of mankind, especially in the context of the industrial revolution.

(1) Conservatism

The Holy Alliance of Austria, Prussia, Russia was formed under the leadership of Metternich. Led by the philosophy of Metternich, the Conservative monarchies determined to not only keep France in line but to prevent any of the revolutionary liberal ideas of the French Revolution from destroying their traditional social and political structures, namely, the monarchy, the nobility, the governmental bureaucracy, and making certain that the commoners knew their proper place and stayed there. Metternich's critics, then and now, accuse him of using every means possible to kill liberal reforms promoting a recognition of inalienable rights, an end to serfdom, or fixing national boundaries based upon language or culture..

Certain concessions to the cry for human rights were granted, primarily due to the influence on the rulers of Prussia, Austria, and Russia by the philosophes in the earlier 18th century. These were "the enlightened monarchs."
Whatever human rights concessions were granted, they were done so by decree of the monarch. There was no acknowledgment of anything such as "inalienable rights." If people under the monarch’s rule had certain freedoms, it was not because the monarch saw this as their God-given right, but as concessions he or she made through their own benevolent generosity.
Most natural resources, economic control, and industrial development were viewed as under the control of the monarch, which he or she shared with the nobility to manage. Therefore, any development of industry and trade was determined by and funded by them. “Mercantilism has always worked best for us in the past and is consistent with our philosophy of government.” As a result, the Industrial Revolution lagged behind England by 50-60 years until the opening of the 20th century when suddenly Germany closed the gap through more liberal policies. Russia and the rest of Eastern Europe never really ever did catch up.
The conservatives were opposed to any form of liberalism, nationalism, and socialism. At all costs, the German, Austrian, and Russian "traditional order" must be retained.
A prime example of how Conservatism worked out in action, the King of Prussia in 1819 issued the Carlsbad Decrees, which in effect, banned any expression of liberalism or nationalism in newspapers or universities in Prussia, the 38 independent German states, and Austria. He created a a spy network to enforce the decrees.
Edmund Burke (1790), English philosopher, cautioned against overthrowing national traditions (the control by the monarchies) in his Reflections on the Revolution in France. He supported the British monarchy, fearing the spread of the revolution to England. However, he strongly supported the recognition and honoring of inalienable rights, which were not that strongly endorsed by others in the conservative camps of Austria, Prussia, or Russia.

(2) Nationalism

The major principle of Nationalism stated that each people group or national group have the right to 1) have their own self-determined government, and 2) pursue their own national interests. This usually meant no monarchy and no nobility. The prevailing attitude was, "We think what they do in Prussia, Austria, and Russia is horrible! Hungary for the Hungarians! Slovenia for the Slavs! Greece for the Greeks. Nationalists were, therefore, opposed to multicultural and multi linguistic empires. They viewed the Ottoman Empire with as much disdane as the Prussian Empire and the British Empire.

Only a representative government is tolerable, and if a monarchy exists, it must be governed and curtailed by a constitution.
New nations must be created comprised of those land territories inhabited by people who possess a common language and practice a common culture. “If no boundaries for new formed nations based upon linguistic and cultural commonalities, we will create them!” (Where practiced this created "imaginary states" that never before existed and had no common history. Such is the case in the Middle East today. This caused great trouble in the Balkan States where populations overlapped and where minorities with other languages were considered second class citizens.)
If no major national language exists but many dialects of that same language do exist in contiguous areas, the minor dialects should be discouraged in favor of allowing a major dialect to become the national language. The same applies tor customs, traditions, and dress.
People living in neighboring areas who speak the same language should be brought into that larger nation. "France would not have invaded Belgium, for instance, if the majority French speakers in Belgium had been peacefully grafted into France. Similar problems will arise in Poland, Alsace, and Bohemia where many German speakers reside."
The basic loyalty of the individual is to the nation and not to the monarch or government.

Nationalism in Europe created a "we" vs "them" mentality (e.g. Hungarians vs Germans, Czechs vs Poles) which produced (1) feelings of national superiority (“We are stronger than you and will seek to impose our will on you”), and (2) a new quest to fulfill a national destiny (which at times tended to ignore the other neighboring guy's boundaries--e.g. Hitler in 1939) or another territory on another continent (e.g. Great Britain in India, France in North Africa, Spain in the Philippines, etc.).

Nationalism usually supported either liberalism (for economic policies and for supporting idea of inalienable rights of the individual) or radical republicanism (the majority ethnic and linguistic group possesses all power over minority groups).

Note: Nationalism led to the outbreak of WW I in 1914 when a Serbian nationalist assassinated the Duke of Austria who was next in line to rule the Empire. It was also Hitler's excuse later to invade Poland where a large German minority lived, and was Russia’s excuse to come to the aid of their fellow Slavs and Orthodox Christians, the Serbs in the Bosnian War.

(3) Liberalism

Each people or national group has an inalienable right to 1) self-determination, 2) equality under the law and not legally separate classes; and 3) specific, guaranteed inalienable individual rights that are "inalienable" and not conferred by a king or government. In fact, if a government does not uphold these inalienable rights, it must be overthrown.

A representative government alone is to be tolerated and other forms of governing are illigitimate. (In England few of the liberals went so far as to seek to abolish the monarchy. They confined their ideals primarily to the economic issues, since most of the "inalienable rights" issues had for centuries been present in England since the Magna Carta of 1215 and the Grand Revolution of 1689.
Four basic inalienable rights are inherent to the human and are not "granted" by some superior king or potentate: 1) freedom of speech, 2) freedom of the press, 3) freedom to peacefully assemble, 4) freedom from arbitrary arrest. In some cases it extended to freedom of religion (America, Germany, Austria).
Unrestricted private enterprise alone is consistent with inalienable rights and self-determination. Capitalism -- free enterprise -- competition -- laissez faire economics.

Adam Smith set forth the case for liberal economics in Wealth of Nations, 1776. His major emphasis was free competition in the marketplace and to allow the "invisible hand" of a self-regulating market. The "invisible hand" best regulates prices and productivity and gives to the individual the freedom to do what he or she does best and what they are willing to give effort towards.

Smith's policies were practiced primarily in England and the United States in the 19th century.

Problems arose when Smith's policies were practiced: 1) business owners used this as an excuse to pay low wages in order to remain competitive; 2) some grew extremely wealthy ("textile barons" and "tycoons"); 3) the right of workers to unite for better wages was denied and labor unions were outlawed, inhibiting the full expression of the inalienable rights of lower income workers to collectively bargain for higher wages and better working conditions; and, 4) laws regulating the rights of workers to collectively bargain for higher wages and better working conditions were enacted. Government, however, also passed laws protecting women and children from abusive owners and managers, excessive work loads, and limiting hours required of workers in a work week.

(4) Socialism

Socialism began in France after 1815. It was a reaction against the perceived abuses of the workers by capitalism in Great Britain. It became the dominant view in France and continues today.

Government should organize and control the economy and not allow destructive competition to do the job.
The workers and the poor should be assisted by the government to become the equals of economically with the managers, merchants, and owners of industry and commerce.
Government should ensure the existence of the inalienable rights of the individual. Greedy industrialists will never do it of their own free will, because free enterprise is based upon greed.
Private property is not an "inalienable right" and property acquisition should be regulated by the government.
Among some socialists, private property and profit were "dirty" and should be eliminated. (Pierre Proudhon, What Is Property?, 1840: "Profit is wealth in wages stolen from the worker.")
Some Socialists in pursuit of "inalienable rights" called for the emancipation of women, saw marriage as a form of prostitution, favored the abolition of marriage, male/female unions based only on love, and free sexual expression.

Socialism found few welcome mats in 19th century Europe. It was considered to be seditious, extreme, and fueled by wild leadership.

Karl Marx called the early proponents of Socialism "utopian Socialists" because they had no concrete plans for action to realize their goals.

Karl Marx 1882 (Public Domain)

(5) Marxian Socialism

Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a Prussian-born philosopher and economist. His paternal line produced numerous Jewish rabbis. His maternal line included Dutch industrialists who later founded Phillips Electronics. Marx's father, seeking to rid his family of prevalent Prussian anti-semitic prejudices, converted to Lutheranism, the Prussian state church. Accordingly, Karl was baptized at age six in the Lutheran Church.

Marx lived many years in England and became an astute observer of British industrialism, the plight of workers, and the uneven distribution of wealth inherent, he believed, in capitalism. His conclusions about that system and his "better way," known as Marxian Socialism, was published in 1847 in the small pamphlet "Manifesto of the Communist Party," co-authored by Friedrich Engels. Engels, following the catechismal format of Luther's catechism, produced "A Communist Confession of Faith," also in 1847. Marx's lifetime work was Das Kapital. The first volume was published in 1867. Volumes II and III were published by Engels after the death of Marx. The overall conclusion reached by Marx was that capitalism exploited the workers and that its reliance on profit was doomed to fail.

The Manifesto opens with the following statement: "A spectre is haunting Europe — the spectre of communism. All the powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre: Pope and Tsar, Metternich and Guizot, French Radicals and German police-spies." Obviously, this was a pretentious statement in 1847.

"The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. . . Our epoch, the epoch of the bourgeoisie, possesses, however, this distinct feature: it has simplified class antagonisms. Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other — Bourgeoisie and Proletariat." (Communist Manifesto, Chapter One)
Marx and Engels adopted the dialectic of the German philosopher, Georg Hegel (1770-1831): in all areas of life there is a dialectic that exists between the old and the new, the collision between the two creating something new, the new synthesis. In history there will inevitably occur a major revolution between the "haves" (bourgeoisie) and the "have nots" (proletariat) and the proletariat will win and assume control over their own destiny.
The new synthesis will be the classless society where the new principle will be, "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need."
Meanwhile, a strict socialism is necessary with the control of the economy, production, wages, prices, etc., in the hands of a central "people's committee" that will govern until the true classless society can emerge. Major goals to be achieved in the "strict socialism" are:

Abolition of property in land and application of all rents of land to public purposes.
A heavy progressive or graduated income tax.
Abolition of all rights of inheritance.
Confiscation of the property of all emigrants and rebels.
Centralisation of credit in the hands of the state, by means of a national bank with State capital and an exclusive monopoly.
Centralisation of the means of communication and transport in the hands of the State.
Extension of factories and instruments of production owned by the State; the bringing into cultivation of waste-lands, and the improvement of the soil generally in accordance with a common plan.
Equal liability of all to work. Establishment of industrial armies, especially for agriculture.
Combination of agriculture with manufacturing industries; gradual abolition of all the distinction between town and country by a more equable distribution of the populace over the country.
Free education for all children in public schools. Abolition of children’s factory labour in its present form. Combination of education with industrial production.

(Read the Manifesto at https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/index.htm)

Marxian Socialism found a ready home in Russia (1917) where peasants comprised 95% of the population, lived in extreme poverty, and were governed by a seemingly non responsive government. The elite controlled the economy. Its second home was in China (1949) where similar conditions existed under the numerous dynasties, resulting in the Civil Wars of 1920-1949. Following the establishment of Marxian Socialism in Russia, Russia created the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republic. Using its military strength, Russia overwhelmed Eastern Europe after World War II and imposed communist rule through puppet governments in Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, East Germany, Bulgaria, and Yugoslavia. Communist governments in those nations fell in 1989 and was outlawed in Russia in 1991.

(6) Romanticism

"All these isms sound cold, hard, and inhumane! Add to that the coldness of the industrial revolution with its machines and dirty cities. Give me nature, free love, and let me do my thing!"

These were the 19th century hippies -- enchanted by nature and questing for unrestrained personal freedom. "If we could have one big love-in throughout Europe, all of the inalienable rights would blossom and flourish!"

Goal: "The supreme purpose in life is the full development of one's human potential."

Major ideas of Romanticism:

Industry is big, brutal, dirty, attacks nature, and pollutes not only nature but also corrupts the human personality.
Advocated: 1) emotional exuberance, 2) unrestrained imagination, and 3) spontaneity (McKay)
Materialism, which lies at the heart of other alternatives for rebuilding Europe is to be rejected.
History takes us back to a better day in Europe, the Romantic times of the past, and reminds us of the tales of culture, heroes, and peace.

Romanticism was expressed in the great literature produced by Wordsworth, Shelley, Keats, Goethe, Hugo, and Brothers Grimm.

It also produced a new musical idiom which broke away from the old Baroque and Classical structures and allowed the melody to simply flow. The works of Beethoven, Lizst, Chopin, and Mendelssohn produced a new and gentler sound.

Romanticism found a home in England, France, and Germany but never was adopted by any European government.

Note: Impact of the Six Isms on Adolph Hitler and Germany's Third Reich

Nationalism, Socialism, and Romanticism were woven together into the philosophy of Hitler. True to Nationalism, Hitler used the presence of Germans in surrounding nations as an excuse to invade and incorporate those territories into Greater Germany. Socialism gave fuel for the Nazi rulers to confiscate the press, radio stations, industry and commerce throughout Germany. Romanticism gave rise to the adoration of folk tales, customs, heroes--both human and mythological--to develop the foundations of the Aryan Master Race. Richard Wagner (1813-1883) featured these themes in his operas and was Hitler's favored composer. His racist and antisemitic sentiments found their expression in Hitler's Germany.